8.1 Description Of Data Data is/are collection of raw fact(s) about people, objects,events and concepts. Data can be used either in the singular or plural sense. Information is the data that is analyzed/processed in a meaningful manner, for decision making. That is, we obtain information when a set of data undergoes processing. The terms Data, Information and Knowledge are frequently used for overlapping concepts. The main difference is in the level of abstraction being considered. Data is the lowest level of abstraction, information is the next level, and finally, knowledge is the highest level among all three.
Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be something simple and seemingly random and useless until it is organized. E.g. each student’s test score is one piece of data.
Data is an abstract concept that can be viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived. Data in themselves are fairly useless. But when these data are interpreted and processed to determine its true meaning, they become useful and can be called Information. Data is/are the facts of the World. For example, take yourself. You may be 6ft tall, have black hair and yellow eyes. All of this is ―data‖. You have black hair whether this is written down somewhere or not.
Data can be thought of as a description of the World. We can perceive this data with our senses, and then the brain can process this. Human beings have used data as long as we‘ve existed to form knowledge of the world. Until we started using information, all we could use was data directly. If you wanted to know how tall I was, you would have to come and look at me. Our knowledge was limited by our direct experiences. Information allows us to expand our knowledge beyond the range of our senses.
We can capture data in information, and then move it about so that other people can access it at different times. Information is a critical resource in the operation and management of organizations. Timely availability of relevant information is vital for effective performance of access it at different times. Information is a critical resource in the operation and management of organizations. Timely availability of relevant information is vital for effective performance of managerial functions such as planning, organizing, leading, and control.
The diagram could be explained further as follows;
- Data à processing à Information
- Information à intelligence à Knowledge
- Knowledge à experience à Wisdom
Page 112 of 288 Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Attributes of Data/Information
- Usability Relevant:
- Relevance is yet another key attribute of management information. Information is said to be relevant if it answers specifically for the recipient what, why, where, who and why? In other words, the MIS should serve reports to managers, which are useful, and the information helps them make decisions.
- Simple: good information should not be too voluminous; it should contain only the relevant facts, without leaving out any necessary details.Flexible: Data should able to adapt to new situation: able to change or be changed according to circumstances.Economical/cost-effective: Cost-effective: the value to be derived from the use of good information should surpass the cost of obtaining such information.
- Exception based: Top managers need only exception reports regarding the performance of the organization. Exception reporting principle states that only those items of information, which will be of particular interest to a manager, are reported. This approach results in saving precious time of the top management and enables the managers to devote more time in pursuit of alternatives for the growth of the organization.
- Explicitness: A report is said to be of good quality if it does not require further analysis by the recipient for decision-making. Thus the reports should be such that a manager does not waste any time on the processing of the report, rather he should be able to extract the required information directly.
2. Quality
- Accurate: Accuracy is another key-attribute of management information. It means that information is free from mistakes and errors, is clear and accurately reflects the meaning of data on which it is based. It conveys an accurate picture to the recipient, who may require a presentation in graphical form rather than tabular form.
- Verifiable: There must be means to check whether the data is true either by examination, investigation, or comparison.
- Complete: The information, which is provided to a manager, must be complete and should meet all his needs. Incomplete information may result in wrong decisions and thus may prove costly to the organization.
- Adequate: Adequacy means information must be sufficient in quantity. MIS must provide reports containing information, which is required in deciding processes of decision-making.
- Reliable: content of good information should be such that the user can rely upon. Relevance: good information should be relevant to the subject it is required for.
3. Delivery
- Timely: Timeliness means that information must reach the recipients within the prescribed time frame. Timeliness refers to the currency of the information presented to the users. Currency of data or information is the time gap between the occurrences of an event in the field until its presentation to the user (decision maker). Timely information can ensure correct executive action at an early stage. The characteristic of timeliness, to be effective, should also include current information.
- Accessible: Data must be easily reached i.e. easy to enter or reach physically, easily understood without specialist knowledge, and easily available to be obtained, used, or experienced without difficulty.
8.2 Methods Of Data Collection/Gathering Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data – for example as part of a process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to keep on record, to make decisions about important issues, to pass the information on to others. Some methods of data gathering are:.
Interview
Questionnaire
Observation of the system in operation
Measuring,
User workgroup
Background research
Special purpose survey. Etc
8.3 Methods Of Data Validation In computer science, data validation is the process of ensuring that a program operates on clean, correct and useful data. It uses routines, often called “validation rules” or “check routines”, that check for correctness, meaningfulness, and security of data that are input to the system. Data validation checks that data are valid, sensible, reasonable, and secure before they are processed. Validation methods: There are several means by which data can be validated; the most popular validation methods are discussed as follows:
- Format or picture check: Checks that the data is in a specified format (template), e.g., dates have to be in the format DD/MM/YYYY.
- Data type checks: Checks the data type of the input and give an error message if the input data does not match with the chosen data type, e.g., In an input box accepting numeric data, if the letter ‘O’ was typed instead of the number zero, an error message would appear.
- Range check: Checks that the data lie within a specified range of values, e.g., the month of a person’s date of birth should lie between 1 and 12.
- Limit check: Unlike range checks, data is checked for one limit only, upper OR lower, e.g., data should not be greater than 2 (>2). Presence check: Checks that important data are actually present and have not been missed out, e.g., customers may be required to have their telephone numbers listed.
- Check digits: Used for numerical data. An extra digit is added to a number which is calculated from the digits. The computer checks this calculation when data are entered, e.g., The ISBN for a book. The last digit is a check digit calculated using a modulus 11 method.
- Batch totals: Checks for missing records. Numerical fields may be added together for all records in a batch. The batch total is entered and the computer checks that the total is correct, e.g., add the ‘Total Cost’ field of a number of transactions together.
- Methods Of Data Storage
The methods of data storage are discussed based on the media usage as follows:
- Magnetic: Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers.
- Optical: Optical storage, the typical Optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is non- volatile. The deformities may be permanent (read only media),formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following forms are currently in common use: CD, CD-ROM, DVD, BD-ROM: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
- Magneto-optical disc storage: Magneto-optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a ferromagnetic surface stores information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is non-volatile, sequential access, slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
- Paper: Paper data storage, typically in the form of paper tape or punched cards, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole.
- Optical tape: This is a medium for optical storage generally consisting of a long and narrow strip of plastic onto which patterns can be written and from which the patterns can be read back. It shares some technologies with cinema film stock and optical discs, but is compatible with neither. The motivation behind developing this technology was the possibility of far greater storage capacities than either magnetic tape or optical discs.
8.5 Data Protection Against Viruses & Attacks
Data protection against viruses and attack is very important in the computer environment. Means of preventing data against Virus & attacks are:
- Installation of anti-Virus software on a computer system
- Running of secure operating system
- Scanning of system regularly for virus
- Avoid programs from unknown source
- Backup data regularly
- Limit the sharing of data storage devices such as: flash drive, CDs, external hard drive etc
- Restricted access
- Put computer in a save location
- Prevent computer against power fluctuation and surge
- Segregation of duties
- Hire carefully
- Frequent audits
- Monitoring transaction
- Encryption
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